Don't blame the tools #4: Argan

This mini-series in my blog is dedicated to looking at how the use of 'water-efficient' and 'water-suitable' or 'regionally-appropriate' crops used can increase food security across Africa. 

Super foods are all the rage, and argan oil has not escaped the trend. It reportedly has numerous health benefits and as such, has a name (and price) to match them. Argan oil is also a popular success story for many NGOs and international development charities in Morocco.

Argan trees are picky. According to Orwa's (et al, 2009) "Agroforestree database", the argan tree very well adapted to Morocco's climate, soils and ecology. To that extent, other regions of the world (Israel and Mexico) have only had some success with growing argan trees.

This mini series focuses on to what extent a particular crop is 'water-suitable'. The argan tree does not get more suitable in climatically dry regions with limited groundwater (Morocco). Argan trees do poorly in waterlogged soils (Orwa et al., 2009). Their deep roots help bind soils, promote infiltration, and provide it with access to deeper water reserves, reducing competition and making great trees to be intercrop with. Finally, they have seen success in halting the occurrence of desertification of the Sahara Desert across Southern Morocco (Orwa et al., 2009).

However, the water-suitability benefits are not the only advantages to argan. Argan, as previously mentioned, has been a success story across a number of NGOs (Lybbert et al., 2010). Argan can be sold for almost $400 per litre, so presumably has a large impact on rural poverty alleviation. However argan oil sales have been relatively insignificant in increasing household budgets, and have only some financial benefit on rural households (le Polain de Waroux & Lambin, 2013). For those who previously would heard goats, more vigilant households have begun preventing herders from using their trees for goats to graze upon, due to the value of the fruit (Lybbert et al., 2010). This has not only impacted herders, but also affected tree health, as goats were non-exploitative grazers. Furthermore, few households have invested back into local argan forests, further impacting the future sustainability of argan forests. 

It's like an adventure park for goats! (Source)

The future pressures are also rather significant. The argan tree is a highly tolerant species, which adapts well with little water in a harsh environment. As consumer demand and climate variability increases in the future, so will human and climatic pressures. Zunzunegui (et al., 2010) argues a combination of both pressures will have the largest impact on production. A sustainable  approach is therefore needed to reduce human pressures and mitigate against lower yields in the future. Although Zunzunegui's research was limited, the research warrants caution over exploitation.

Argan trees are perfect cash crops for Moroccans. They are endemic species, highly tolerant of the harsh environment, and highly water-suitable for the region. Future climatic impacts may alter the opinion of NGOs as fruit yields decrease and sustainable yields should be. For the short term, they give a rare and hopeful opportunity to alleviate poverty and improve the finances of those in rural Morocco.

Don't blame the tools #3: Money grows on trees!

This mini-series in my blog is dedicated to looking at how the use of 'water-efficient' and 'water-suitable' or 'regionally-appropriate' crops used can increase food security across Africa. 

Cash crops are popular for farmers, as they can provide a good source of income which allows farmers to purchase other produce and commodities. However, cash crops are widely agreed to be controversial, as they decrease food security and increase dependency on international markets (Maxwell and Fernando, 1989). The wider environmental and economic impacts of moving away from sustenance farming to 'cash crop' farming should not be ignored, especially when looking at the appropriateness of crops across Africa.

Cash crops or sustenance farming? (Source)

Maxwell and Fernando's (1989) review of the literature and existing research at the time is a good stepping stone for understanding the impacts of cash crops. Ultimately, the data on production volume was limited at the time, but amongst a number of other conclusions, there were a significant proportion of lower income countries whereby a good proportion (10%) of their GDP relied on the export of cash crops. Further to the increase in GDP, there are short-term advantages of cash crop-export. These include household stability and national investment, however longer term issues are frequently highlighted through an increased dependency on a single commodity, decreasing competitive advantages, especially against manufactured goods compared to primary produce (grains, etc.) and increasing vulnerability to volatility in the market. In these instances, "high production and consumption linkages" crops are required, especially if they are used in secondary industries. 

The economic advantages are clear. Cash crops are important and promising to poorer households who can see these crops as a means to generate extra income, and potentially generate extra employment. Policies can be included to guide households (Von Braun and Kennedy (1986)), but ultimately food security was found to not be negatively impacted, and instead increased production and availability of food security on household and national levels. However, what is not discussed is whether the increase in food security is stable over time (i.e. not varied throughout the year due seasonal sales of crops) and the quality of the food security. This extends to employment, as although employment is increased, the temporal and spatial distribution of the increase, as well as the remuneration received is limited in research.

There is a strong case for small-scale cash crop farming, which is economically and socially important in providing empowerment of rural farmers and women, as well as aiding countries on a national level. There is need for a middle ground policy which drives sustainability in food production and limit dependence on mono-crops. Von Braun and Kennedy (1986) advocate this view and have provided detailed national level requirements to ensure resource balance, effectiveness of cash crops, and efficient growth while protecting the environment and wider society. Finally the suitability of cash crops to a particular region should detailed. Limited data exists on the water requirements, let alone the environmental impacts and suitability.

I hope to provide a greater understanding of cash crops, their water requirements, and impact upon food security during the next few blogs.

Don't blame the tools #2: Coming out of the Maize

This mini-series in my blog is dedicated to looking at how the use of 'water-efficient' and 'water-suitable' or 'regionally-appropriate' crops used can increase food security across Africa. 

For those who do not have the means to irrigate crops, rainfall is the primary means of getting water to crops. Uneven distribution of rainfall exposes crops to a range of rainfall variability, which potentially affects crop yields. Mitigation against variability and reduced rainfall periods are limited, and tend to be dependent on soil water capacity, crop water demand, crop water uptake and freshwater/ groundwater availability (Barron, et al. 2003). 

Across much of Sub-Saharan Africa, the crops in question tend to be Maize (figure 1). Maize is a widely popular staple crop across Africa and globally relied upon, due to its climate, soil and salinity versatility. Furthermore, Maize is a great crop for semi-arid parts of the world as it can withstand reduced water supply for 15 days before having a significant impact upon overall yields (Barron, et al. 2003).

Figure 1: dominant grain production across Africa
(adapted from Yam-Bar, 2013)

Therefore it is generally agreed that the use of Maize is appropriate across Africa, due to its water efficiency and high yield (Barron, et al. 2003; FAO, 2015). 

This would normally be the end point of this blog series, as a range of sources indicate that Maize is a highly appropriate crop for the region give its low water consumption and high tolerance of almost all factors. As Maize is a wide spread and heavily relied upon crop across Sub-Saharan Africa, it is a very researched crop and the future success of Maize in light of climate change has been examined. 

A team from Princeton University studied rainfall and evaporation trends from 1979-2010 to understand how changes would impact Maize yields. They found increases in water availability during the Maize growing season, with some regional variability (Figure 2 (Blue is an increase in water availability over time, red is a decrease)). The research accounts for 34% of all Maize across Africa, and provides a means to examine where water stress might occur and mitigation strategies are required. 

Figure 2: Water availability during Maize growing season
 (Estes et al., 2014) 

Work has gone into solving or mitigating against the issues of water availability in East Africa through development of water-efficient crops. WEMA is a public-private partnership who's goal is to develop and distribute water efficient and insect resistant Maize to stabilise yields and improve food security (WEMA, 2012). Although ethical and environmental issues are prevalent in selective breeding of crops, it insures future availability and sustainability of Maize and food security in the face of climate change.

Maize is not just an important staple crop. In South Africa, the price of Maize has significant influence over civil unrest whereby increases in global and national prices of Maize has triggered labour and xenophobic riots and violence (Yam-Bar et al., 2013). Although Yam-Bar (et al., 2013) comprehensively explores the relationship between civil-unrest and food prices, prices of food tend not to be the initial trigger factor in civil unrest (Deininger, 2003).

The importance of Maize in Africa must not be ignored. It is widespread, adaptable, and an important socio-economic pillar in various cultures and regions across the continent. However, future reductions in water availability in East Africa and continent-wide population could impact food security if mitigation strategies are not implemented.